Source

天下皆知美之為美，斯惡已。皆知善之為善，斯不善已。故有無相生，難易相成，長短相較，高下相傾，音聲相和，前後相隨。是以聖人處無為之事，行不言之教；萬物作焉而不辭，生而不有。為而不恃，功成而弗居。夫唯弗居，是以不去。

Glossary

去

depart

已

and so ... appears

惡

ugliness

故

therefore

生

arise mutually

相

mutually

隨

follow each other

不生

gives life without possessing

天下

All Under Heaven

無為

non-action

聖人

the Sage

萬物

all things

高下

high and low

不言之教

wordless teaching

為而不恃

acts without depending on results

音聲相和

sounds and tones harmonize

功成而弗居

achieves without dwelling on it

Translation Notes

1. "All Under Heaven know the beautiful as beautiful; thereupon ugliness appears." (天下皆知美之為美，斯惡已) — Alternatives considered: All Under Heaven already know beauty as beauty; then ugliness exists. · All Under Heaven knows beauty as beauty, so ugliness is manifested. · All Under Heaven recognizes beauty as beauty; therefore ugliness appears. · Chose present rendering because “Thereupon” plus “appears” preserves both the inceptive/consequential feel of 斯…已 and the philosophical point that evaluative recognition brings its correlative opposite into view.
2. "All know the good as the good; thereupon the not-good appears." (皆知善之為善，斯不善已) — Alternatives considered: All know the good as the good; thereupon evil appears. · All know the good as the good; thereupon what is not good appears. · All know goodness as goodness; then badness appears. · Chose present rendering because The phrase is structurally parallel to the preceding 美/惡 dyad; “not-good” maintains that parallelism and keeps the philosophical framing of negated categories.
3. "Therefore being and non-being give rise to one another, difficult and easy complete one another, long and short measure one another, high and low incline toward one another, sounds and tones harmonize with one another, before and after follow one another." (故有無相生，難易相成，長短相較，高下相傾，音聲相和，前後相隨) — Alternatives considered: …being and non-being arise together; difficulty and ease define each other; … · …high and low tip into one another; … · …sound and voice harmonize; … · Chose present rendering because The English is kept aphoristic and patterned so that the reader feels the mutual co-constitution that the paired Chinese terms and the repeated 相 signal.
4. "For this reason the Sage abides in the affairs of non-action and practices wordless teaching; the myriad things arise, and he does not refuse them; he gives them life and does not possess them." (是以聖人處無為之事，行不言之教；萬物作焉而不辭，生而不有) — Alternatives considered: …handles affairs by inactivity… · …teaching without speaking… · …and he does not disclaim them… · Chose present rendering because These choices aim to preserve terminological consistency (無為, 聖人) and prevent doctrinal misunderstanding (不言之教 not as absolute silence).
5. "He acts without depending on results; when achievement is accomplished, he does not dwell in it." (為而不恃，功成而弗居) — Alternatives considered: …acts but does not rely on that action… · …when merit is finished, he does not take credit… · …he does not remain attached to it… · Chose present rendering because “Dwell” retains the spatial-metaphorical resonance of 居, while “depending on results” conveys 恃’s reliance without collapsing into mere humility talk.
6. "Precisely because he does not dwell in it, it does not depart." (夫唯弗居，是以不去) — Alternatives considered: Therefore, because he does not dwell, nothing departs. · Precisely because he does not cling, merit does not vanish. · …it does not leave. · Chose present rendering because The phrasing preserves the paradoxical logic: non-dwelling is what prevents departure, and the ambiguity of the referent remains.

Footnotes

1. "All Under Heaven" (天下) — 天下 is a conventional civilizational and cosmopolitical term, roughly “all-under-heaven” (the total field of human order as constituted under Heaven), not simply “the world” as geography. In early Chinese political discourse it marks the scope of rule, norms, and intelligibility rather than a detached physical panorama. For a standard treatment, see also the usage in later received texts where “to govern All Under Heaven” (天下太平/天下歸服) denotes universal sway.
2. "the beautiful as beautiful; thereupon ugliness appears" (美之為美，斯惡已) — The structure 皆知美之為美，斯惡已 depends on the grammatical pattern 之為 (lit. “to take/consider X as X”), indicating that “beauty” is an evaluative category constituted through recognition rather than an intrinsic absolute. The particle 斯 … 已 signals consequential emergence: once beauty is designated “beauty,” ugliness (惡) manifests as its counterpart. Commentators are generally agreed that the epistemic act of labeling produces the oppositional category, not that ugliness follows as a mere timeline marker.
3. "the not-good appears" (善之為善，斯不善已) — “Not-good” renders the binary 皆知善之為善，斯不善已. 不善 is not simply “moral evil” in a reified ethical sense; rather it functions as the correlative counterpart to 善, paralleling how 惡 functions as the counterpart to 美. The passage thus frames value terms (beauty/goodness) as relational categories that simultaneously generate their negations.
4. "being and non-being give rise to one another" (有無相生) — 無為 the received ontology of ch. 2 typically revolves around 有無 as the most fundamental pair: “有（being/what-is）” and “無（non-being/what-is-not）.” The phrase 有無相生 (“being and non-being generate each other”) expresses mutual dependence: neither pole is conceptually or functionally prior in a strict way; each is articulated against the other. Later metaphysical interpretations vary in detail, but in the early reception the dominant point is the correlative, co-constitutive relation.
5. "difficult and easy complete one another" (難易相成) — 難易相成 turns the usual contrast (hard/easy) into mutual completion rather than opposition. The verb 成 implies “to come to completion / to be brought to fruition,” suggesting that each term helps define the other’s practical meaning. In English, “complete one another” preserves that the two poles are mutually constitutive.
6. "long and short measure one another" (長短相較) — 長短相較 uses 較 (“to compare/measure”) to indicate that length and shortness are intelligible only through comparison. The dyadic rhythm continues the chapter’s general epistemology: categories are relational and comparative rather than self-sufficient.
7. "high and low incline toward one another" (高下相傾) — 高下相傾 is syntactically compact and semantically dense. 傾 can mean “to incline/lean toward,” and in this context it is best taken as describing the mutual leaning that results from a high/low contrast. The translation’s “incline toward one another” preserves the reciprocal, relational motion implied by 相.
8. "sounds and tones harmonize" (音聲相和) — The paired term 音聲 is commonly glossed as a distinction between 音 (pitched tone/what sounds as organized in pitch) and 聲 (sound/sonic emergence, sometimes associated with “voice” in musical contexts). Rendering them both as “sounds and tones” keeps the binome’s aesthetic-phonological scope rather than collapsing it into a single generic “sound.”
9. "before and after follow one another" (前後相隨) — 前後相隨 makes temporal relation explicitly reciprocal: “before” and “after” form a sequence only as each is defined relative to the other. 隨 (“follow”) underscores that temporal categories are relational rather than absolute positions in a vacuum.
10. "For this reason" (故) — 故 in 故有/故 is functioning as an inferential marker: “therefore,” “for this reason,” introducing the normative political and ethical implications of the preceding dialectic. English “therefore” may risk sounding too formal for a paratactic text; “for this reason” tends to fit the chapter’s pivot without overcommitting to a strict logical subordination.
11. "the Sage" (聖人) — 聖人 in Daodejing is a technical ideal figure distinct from Confucian or later religious “saint” (holy person) connotations. It denotes the perfected agent who embodies Taoist principles, especially alignment with 無為. Consistent capitalization (“the Sage”) helps readers keep the figure as a doctrinal construct rather than a generic moralist.
12. "abides in the affairs of non-action" (處無為之事) — 無為 is a cornerstone term. Literally “without (explicit) doing,” it is not identical with passivity or indolence; it means non-coercive, non-interfering governance that does not impose contrived aims on the spontaneous emergence of things. Here 處無為之事 (“abides/handles the affairs of non-action”) presents wu-wei as a mode of political administration.
13. "practices wordless teaching" (不言之教) — 不言之教 should be understood as “teaching without (reliance on) words,” i.e., transformative instruction through example, presence, and aligned governance rather than overt discursive moralizing. The phrase does not imply total silence as doctrine; rather, it indicates that verbal exhortation is not the essential vehicle of moral-political transformation.
14. "he does not refuse them" (不辭) — In 萬物作焉而不辭, 辭 is contested: it can mean “to refuse/disclaim” or more broadly “to turn away from (the arising of things).” In this context, 不辭 most naturally means that the Sage does not resist, reject, or disclaim the spontaneous emergence of the myriad things. The English “does not refuse them” captures that sense of non-retreat.
15. "he gives them life and does not possess them" (生而不有) — 生而不有 makes explicit the Sage’s non-appropriative relationship to emergence. 有 here includes possessive claiming and taking ownership (not only physical possession). The pair 生 … 不有 parallels the chapter’s initial ontology of 有/無: what “arises” need not be conceptually owned or staked as “mine.”
16. "He acts without depending on results" (為而不恃) — 為而不恃 has the rhetorical shape “do/undertake, but do not lean on/presume.” 恃 means “to rely on; to have as one’s support,” and thus the Sage’s action is not grounded in confidence in outcomes or in the self’s entitlement to credit. The translation’s “depending on results” foregrounds dependence rather than arrogance.
17. "when achievement is accomplished, he does not dwell in it" (功成而弗居) — 功成而弗居 (lit. “when merit is accomplished, he does not dwell”) uses 居 metaphorically for dwelling/lingering—i.e., attachment to one’s achievements. The triad 生而不有／為而不恃／功成而弗居 climaxes in its non-egoic posture: allow generation, act without reliance, accomplish without lingering in the accomplished state.
18. "does not depart" (夫唯弗居，是以不去) — 夫唯弗居，是以不去 concludes with a paradox: because the Sage does not dwell, what is accomplished does not “去.” 去 (in this aphoristic environment) means “to depart/withdraw/fade away,” not merely “to go away.” The causal linkage 是以 (“therefore/precisely because”) indicates that non-dwelling is what preserves efficacy or merit from dispersing.

Glossary References

天下

All Under Heaven · Cosmopolitical scope of rule and intelligibility in early Chinese usage.

無為

non-action · Doctrinal Taoist mode of governance/agency: non-coercive, non-interfering action aligned with the natural course.

聖人

the Sage · Taoist ideal perfected agent distinct from Confucian/Western “saint” senses.

不言之教

wordless teaching · Tacit/transformative instruction; not reducible to total silence.

相

reciprocal/mutual relation (as signaled by 相-forms) · Used in dyads (e.g., 相生/相成/相較) to indicate mutual dependence or correlative functioning.

去

depart · In the closing maxim, means withdrawal/fading away; rendered as “depart” to preserve the paradox with 弗居. ---

Context

This passage is Chapter 2 of the Daodejing (Tao Te Ching), traditionally attributed to Laozi and commonly dated, in compositional layers, to the late Spring and Autumn or Warring States period. The text emerged within the intellectual ferment of early China, when competing schools debated rulership, ethics, language, and the proper relation between human artifice and the larger way of things. This chapter is foundational for early Daoist thought: it argues that value judgments such as beauty and goodness arise relationally, and it links that insight to the political ideal of the Sage ruler, who governs through non-action rather than assertive intervention.

The passage reflects a broader early Chinese concern with correlative thinking: paired terms such as being and non-being, difficult and easy, long and short, high and low, sound and tone, and before and after are understood as mutually defining rather than absolutely separate. Its political language belongs to the world of classical statecraft, where the figure of the Sage serves as an idealized ruler or exemplar. The expression 天下 should be understood in its conventional civilizational sense, "All Under Heaven," not merely as a geographic world. The chapter has had immense later influence in philosophy, political theory, self-cultivation traditions, and literary discourse, especially through the doctrines of 無為 and 不言之教.

Themes

1. Relational generation of values Beauty and ugliness, goodness and not-goodness are presented not as isolated absolutes but as categories that arise in mutual dependence. The passage questions fixed evaluative distinctions by showing how naming one pole brings the other into view.
2. Mutual production of opposites The paired formulations on being and non-being, difficult and easy, long and short, high and low, sound and voice, and before and after express a cosmological and linguistic principle: opposites are co-constitutive and function together.
3. Non-action as governance The Sage responds to this structure of reality by practicing 無為, acting in a manner free from coercive assertion, contrivance, and possessive interference. Political order is achieved by alignment rather than force.
4. Wordless teaching 不言之教 presents instruction through presence, example, and tacit transformation rather than argumentative speech or overt moralizing. The idea is pedagogical as well as political.
5. Non-possession and non-appropriation The Sage allows things to arise, nurtures them, acts, and accomplishes, yet does not claim ownership, dependency, or credit. This refusal of appropriation is central to Daoist virtue.
6. Enduring achievement through non-dwelling The final maxim teaches that precisely because the Sage does not dwell in accomplished merit, that merit does not depart. Lasting efficacy comes from not clinging to results.

Idioms

1. 天下皆知美之為美，斯惡已 A famous opening formulation showing that once beauty is recognized as beauty, its opposite emerges. It is often cited in discussions of Daoist skepticism toward fixed categories and evaluative language. For translation, 已 here is better understood as marking emergence or manifestation rather than simple existence.
2. 有無相生 One of the best-known phrases in the Daodejing. 'Being and non-being give rise to one another' encapsulates the Daoist insight that apparent opposites are mutually generative. The phrase has had a long afterlife in metaphysics, aesthetics, and commentary traditions.
3. 難易相成 Difficult and easy complete one another. The phrase stresses complementarity rather than antagonism and should be translated in a way that preserves reciprocity.
4. 前後相隨 Before and after follow one another. It conveys sequential interdependence and rounds out the series of parallel pairings with a temporal example.
5. 處無為之事 A concise expression of Daoist political conduct: to 'handle affairs through non-action' or 'abide in the business of non-action.' Because 無為 is a key term of art, it should usually be rendered consistently as 'non-action' or, if interpreted, with great caution.
6. 行不言之教 To practice the teaching without words. This became a classic formulation for tacit instruction, transformative example, and governance that avoids discursiveness.
7. 生而不有，為而不恃，功成而弗居 A celebrated triad describing the Sage's relation to action and achievement: he gives life without possessing, acts without relying on or presuming upon his action, and accomplishes without dwelling in the accomplishment. The balanced syntax is essential to its force.
8. 功成而弗居 When achievement is completed, one does not dwell in it. This line is frequently quoted as a maxim of humility and anti-appropriation in both political and personal contexts.
9. 夫唯弗居，是以不去 Precisely because he does not dwell in it, it does not depart. The line is lapidary and paradoxical: non-attachment is what allows efficacy or merit to endure. For consistency, 去 is better rendered as 'depart' or 'fade away' than colloquial 'go away.'

Literary Devices

1. Anaphoric parallelism The chapter opens with repeated structures such as 皆知...斯...已 and then unfolds a string of tightly balanced dyads. This patterned repetition gives the argument aphoristic force and must be reflected in English syntax as much as possible.
2. Antithetical pairing The series of opposites—有無, 難易, 長短, 高下, 音聲, 前後—uses contrast to demonstrate complementarity. The rhetorical effect depends on preserving the paired terms and their symmetry.
3. Parataxis The passage relies on juxtaposed clauses without explicit logical connectors. English translation must decide how much connective explanation to add without overdetermining the terse original.
4. Progressive argument from ontology to politics The text moves from observations about language and reality to prescriptions for Sage rule. This structural progression is a key literary and philosophical feature of the chapter.
5. Tricolon 生而不有，為而不恃，功成而弗居 forms a three-part climactic sequence. Its rhythm and incremental development should be retained.
6. Paradox The final statement, that by not dwelling in achievement it does not depart, expresses a deliberately paradoxical Daoist truth. The translation should preserve the tension rather than flatten it into a merely practical lesson.

Translation Challenges

1. 天下皆知美之為美，斯惡已。皆知善之為善，斯不善已。 — 之為美 and 之為善 literally indicate 'to take X as X' or 'to recognize X as X'; the translator must decide between a more literal epistemic phrasing and a smoother idiomatic English line. 天下 is an established term and should be rendered consistently as 'All Under Heaven,' avoiding redundancy such as 'All Under Heaven all know.' 斯...已 is difficult: 已 here does not simply mean 'already' in a temporal sense. In this context it marks consequential emergence, so renderings like 'thereupon ugliness appears' or 'so the not-good manifests' may better capture the nuance than a flat 'there is.' 不善 here is not merely moral evil in a fully reified sense; depending on interpretation, it may mean 'the not-good,' 'badness,' or 'what is not good.' The level of abstraction should be chosen carefully and consistently.
2. 故有無相生，難易相成，長短相較，高下相傾，音聲相和，前後相隨。 — Each binome is terse and semantically dense; the translator must preserve both brevity and reciprocity. 相 can indicate mutuality, reciprocity, or correlative relation. Repeating 'each other' in every clause can sound heavy, but omitting it entirely may lose the philosophical point. 高下相傾 is textually and interpretively difficult. 傾 can suggest leaning, inclining, or tipping toward each other rather than a simple static contrast. 音聲 is not two unrelated synonyms. Commentarial traditions distinguish them in different ways; the translator must decide whether to render both explicitly, such as 'tone and sound' or 'notes and voices,' while preserving the paired structure.
3. 是以聖人處無為之事，行不言之教； — 聖人 is a technical term in classical philosophy and should normally be capitalized as 'the Sage' rather than generalized as merely 'a wise person.' 處無為之事 can mean 'abides in/handles the affairs of non-action.' The challenge is to preserve 無為 as a doctrinal term while making the English intelligible. 不言之教 is likewise a compact doctrinal phrase. It should not be overinterpreted as absolute silence; rather, it implies teaching without reliance on verbal instruction alone. The semicolon marks a conceptual turn in modern punctuation, but the Classical Chinese is more continuous; the translator must shape the sentence rhythm carefully.
4. 萬物作焉而不辭，生而不有。 — 作焉 can mean 'the myriad things arise therein/before him' or 'spring forth,' and 焉 is syntactically slippery. The translator must decide whether to make the locus explicit or leave it implicit. 不辭 is contested: it can mean not refusing them, not disclaiming them, not rejecting the task, or not speaking of them. Context usually favors not refusing or not resisting the arising of things. 生而不有 is central to Daoist anti-possession. 有 here should not be reduced to simple physical ownership alone; it includes possessive appropriation and claiming.
5. 為而不恃，功成而弗居。 — 為 can mean act, do, undertake, or bring about. Since it echoes 無為, the English should preserve thematic continuity. 不恃 may mean not rely on, not presume upon, not lean on, or not be arrogant because of one's action. The translator must choose whether to foreground dependence or self-assertive presumption. 弗居 literally 'does not dwell/reside' in the accomplished merit. This is metaphorical and should not be flattened into merely 'does not keep it' or 'does not take credit' unless the wider resonance is retained.
6. 夫唯弗居，是以不去。 — 夫唯 is an emphatic, summative turn: 'Now, precisely because...' or 'It is only because....' The translator should preserve the concluding force. The subject of 不去 is implicit. What does not depart may be merit, accomplishment, or efficacy. English may need to supply a referent, but doing so risks narrowing the ambiguity. 去 is better rendered with nuance such as 'depart' or 'fade away' rather than colloquial 'go away,' especially for consistency with established glossarial guidance.

Allusions

1. 故有無相生，難易相成，長短相較，高下相傾，音聲相和，前後相隨 — Tao Te Ching (Daodejing) Chapter 2

Technical Terms

1. 無為 (Taoist Philosophy): Effortless action following the natural course; non-interference - Translation: Must be distinguished from laziness. Standard translation: "non-action". Do not translate as "inaction" without context.
2. 聖人 (Taoist Philosophy): Fully realized being embodying Taoist non-egoic principles, distinct from Confucian sages - Translation: Consistently capitalize as "the Sage" or "Sage". Do not confuse with saint/monk connotations in Western traditions.
3. 作 (Taoist Metaphysics): Spontaneous emergence without deliberate initiation - Translation: Rendered as "arise" or "emerge" (萬物作焉: the ten thousand things arise). Avoid "act/do" to preserve spontaneity nuance.
4. 音聲 (Chinese Aesthetics): Phonological binary between raw sound and pitched tone - Translation: Note distinction: 聲 = specific musical note; 音 = general auditory sound. Translate as "sounds and tones".

Ambiguous Terms

1. 惡 — 95% confidence - Possible meanings: `ugly` · `evil` · `detestable` · `bad (aesthetically)` - Resolution: Here it functions as the antithesis of 美 ('beautiful') within a philosophical binary. Refers to aesthetic 'ugliness' rather than moral evil.
2. 傾 — 85% confidence - Possible meanings: `topple` · `incline` · `lean toward` · `depend` - Resolution: Denotes spatial/topological mutuality with 高下 (high/low). From context of interdependent opposites, 'incline' conveys mutual dependence better than 'topple'.
3. 辭 — 90% confidence - Possible meanings: `decline` · `refuse` · `resign from office` · `shirk responsibility` - Resolution: In the phrase 萬物作焉而不辭, it means 'refuse to deal with' or 'reject' rather than 'resign'. Its object is the spontaneous creative process.

Glossing Notes

Foundational Taoist text (Daodejing Ch.2) establishing ontological relativism and the practice of non-action. Render particles consistently per prior feedback (已 functions as an emergent consequence marker, 去 as "depart/fade"). Key philosophical binaries require precise antithetical parallelism. Remove redundant "all" with "All Under Heaven" as per review. Major technical terms (無為, 聖人) are well-established in English Taoism translations.

Translation Principles

1. Preserve established terminology consistently: render 天下 as 'All Under Heaven,' 聖人 as 'the Sage,' and 無為 as 'non-action' unless there is a compelling project-wide reason to do otherwise.
2. Reflect the emergence nuance of 已 in the opening lines. Prefer wording such as 'thereupon ... appears' or '... manifests' rather than a flat 'and so there is.'
3. Maintain the chapter's parallelism and reciprocity. The dyadic series and the final triad should read as balanced, patterned English rather than loose paraphrase.
4. Do not overexplain the paradoxes inside the translation itself. Allow the relational and aphoristic character of the original to remain perceptible, reserving fuller interpretation for notes.
5. Treat 不言之教 as 'teaching without words' or an equivalent that preserves tacit instruction, not as a simplistic doctrine of total silence.
6. Render 生而不有，為而不恃，功成而弗居 in a way that preserves the sequence from generation, to action, to accomplishment, along with the repeated refusal of appropriation.
7. In the final line, prefer 'does not depart' or 'does not fade away' for 不去, and if supplying an implicit subject such as 'merit' or 'accomplishment,' do so consistently and with awareness that the Chinese leaves it open.

Segmentation

1. 天下皆知美之為美，斯惡已。 `sentence`
2. 皆知善之為善，斯不善已。 `sentence`
3. 故有無相生，難易相成，長短相較，高下相傾，音聲相和，前後相隨。 `sentence` `ambiguous`
4. 是以聖人處無為之事，行不言之教；萬物作焉而不辭，生而不有。 `sentence`
5. 為而不恃，功成而弗居。 `sentence`
6. 夫唯弗居，是以不去。 `sentence`

Segmentation Notes

Segmentation is guided primarily by explicit inference/emphasis particles (故, 是以, 夫, 唯) and clause-final/relational markers (斯, 已, 而, 焉, 不/弗). The largest ambiguity is in the third sentence: the comma-separated sequence functions as a coordinated list of parallel subject-verb correlations (相生/相成/相較/相傾/相和/相隨), but boundaries between items are not independently marked by particles, so that segmentation is slightly lower confidence.

Tone & Style

The tone is lapidary, authoritative, and contemplative. The opening has a diagnostic, almost analytical quality as it lays out how evaluative categories arise. The middle section shifts into normative and political instruction through the figure of the Sage. The conclusion is epigrammatic and paradoxical, ending with a compact maxim whose force depends on restraint rather than emotional emphasis.

The style is classic Daodejing prose: compressed, aphoristic, highly patterned, and philosophically suggestive rather than discursively explicit. It relies on parataxis, parallel couplets, key technical terms, and rhythmic sequences of short clauses. The register is elevated but plain in diction, and much of its power comes from syntactic symmetry and semantic openness.

None

Terminology

天下

All Under Heaven

已

then

去

depart

不言之教

wordless teaching

無為

non-action

聖人

the Sage

為而不恃

acts without depending on results

功成而弗居

achieves without dwelling on it

不有

does not possess

Terminography Notes

Selected cross-chunk items are those most likely to vary by translator (especially particles 已 and the verb 去) or that represent fixed technical/ritual phrasing (天下; 不言之教; 無為; 聖人) and recurring Sage non-attachment clauses (為而不恃; 功成而弗居; 生而不有’s 不有). Preserve the established capitalization for 天下 (“All Under Heaven”) and the Sage (“the Sage”).

Entities

萬乘之主

Ruler of ten thousand chariots

君

Master

司殺

execution overseer

代大匠斲

Master Carpenter who takes the place of the Chief Master Carpenter

大匠斲

Chief Master Carpenter

國之利器不可以示人

A state's sharp instrument may not be shown to others

孤、寡、不穀

“I, the solitary one”; “I, the widowed one”; “I, one without grain”